Observable Actions Behaviorism focuses on outward behaviors rather than internal thoughts. It dominated psychology in the early 20th century. Pavlov and Conditioning Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning, showing how dogs could be trained to salivate at a bell. Skinner's Box B.F. Skinner used controlled environments to study operant conditioning, where behavior is shaped by reward or punishment.

Brain Shortcuts Cognitive biases are systematic errors in thinking that affect decisions and judgments. Examples Common biases include confirmation bias, availability heuristic, and the Dunning-Kruger effect. Everyday Influence These biases impact everything from political opinions to financial choices, often without conscious awareness.

Symbol or Noise Some theories view dreams as symbolic messages from the unconscious, others see them as random neural activity. REM Stage Most vivid dreams occur during REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep, which repeats in cycles through the night. Lucid Dreams Lucid dreaming occurs when the dreamer becomes aware they are dreaming and can sometimes control the events.

Conformity and Obedience Psychologists have shown that people will often conform to group pressure or obey authority even against their morals. Milgram's Shock Test In a 1960s experiment, volunteers believed they were delivering electric shocks to others. Many complied despite apparent distress. Groupthink When group harmony is prioritized over critical thinking, poor decisions can result - a phenomenon known as groupthink.

Types of Memory Memory includes short-term, long-term, and working memory. Each plays a different role in information storage. False Memories The brain is not a perfect recorder. People can develop vivid memories of events that never happened. Forgetting Curve German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus showed that memory loss is steepest shortly after learning, then levels off.

Defining Disorders Psychology categorizes mental health disorders such as anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia in manuals like the DSM. Stigma and Treatment Stigma often prevents people from seeking help, though therapy and medication are effective for many. Rise in Awareness Mental health awareness has grown in recent decades, especially among younger generations.

Childhood Milestones Developmental psychology studies how people grow and change over time, from infancy to old age. Piaget's Theory Jean Piaget identified stages like sensorimotor and formal operational, showing how children's thinking evolves. Attachment Styles Research shows early caregiver relationships shape emotional security and future behavior in adulthood.

Traits and Types Personality theories explore stable traits, such as the Big Five: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Myers-Briggs The MBTI test categorizes people into 16 types based on preferences, though critics question its scientific basis. Nature and Nurture Both genetics and environment influence personality - a longstanding topic in psychology.